INTRODUCTION:

Medicinal plants have been played vital roles in the treatment of diseases and development of human culture all over the world. Medicinal plants have always been at front all cultures of civilizations. Medicinal plants are rich resources of traditional medicines and from these modern medicines are produced. From long ago medicinal plants have been used to treat health disorders, to add flavor and conserve food and to prevent diseases epidemics.¹

The demand for plant-derived products has increased across the world. Although the extensive research in use of medicinal plants in traditional medicine, scientific study and identification of active plant compounds and their effects there is yet more to be explore in the future.²

There is a potential future of medicinal plants as there are about half million plants around the world, and most of them are not investigated so far for their medical activities of medical activities could be crucial in the treatment of present and future studies.³Recent and renewed interest in medicinal plants coupled to explosion in the range and content of electronic information concerning medicinal plants as a re-emergent health aid. As a result of such developments, access to indigenous peoples and cultures concerning medicinal plants are greatly facilitated. Still, the active participation of such natural custodians and practitioners of valuable knowledge is guaranteed in the generation of research focusing on screening programmers dealing with the isolation of bioactive principles and the development of new drug.⁴

Adenanthera pavonina belongs to the family Mimosaceae, commonly known as red bead tree. It is an important medicinal plant from the ‘Indian subcontinent’. This species is endemic to Southern China and India.⁵ A. pavonina is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree about 6-15 m tall and up to 45 cm diameter. Leaves are very large, bipinnate with opposite or sub-opposite pairs of pinnae, green turning yellow with age. Flowers are fragrant, small and narrow spike like racemes petals. seeds are red colour coated, with 7.5-9 mm in diameter and lens shaped.⁶

Ethnopharmacology:

Various parts Adenanthera pavonina have been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of asthma, boil, diarrhoea, gout, inflammations, rheumatism, tumour and ulcers, and as a tonic.⁷ The plant is also used as a cure for sore throat.⁸ Traditionally, the ground seed is widely used for the treatment of various human ailments such as treatment of boils, inflammation, blood disorders, arthritis, rheumatism, cholera, paralysis, epilepsy, convulsion, spasm and indigestion.⁷The seeds of this plant have been found to be effective in treating cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy.⁹Decoction of the seeds is used in pulmonary affections and externally applied in chronic ophthalmia. Methanolic extract of the seeds and roots showed blood pressure lowering effect.⁸

Seeds of A. pavonina are used as poultice and powdered seeds are externally applied for hastening suppuration, treatment for boils and in inflammation. Seeds are edible but toxic. It is also useful in cholera and general paralysis.¹⁰Traditionally, the ground seed is widely used for the treatment of various human ailments such as treatment of boils, inflammation, blood disorders, arthritis, rheumatism, cholera, paralysis, epilepsy, convulsion, spasm, and indigestion.^{11, 12, 13,14}

Earlier claims reported that bark and leaves are astringent, vulnerary and aphrodisiac and are used in ulcers, pharyngopathy, vitiated condition of vata and gout and rheumatism.

The leaves and the barks of the plant are used as a remedy for chronic rheumatism, gout, haematuria, haematemesis and diarrhoea.⁸

Decoctions of leaves and bark are used as a remedy for chronic rheumatism, gout, haematuria, haematemesis and intestinal hemorrhage. Furthermore, the leaves and the bark are used as a remedy for sprains and snake bite. Leaves are also used as atonic and as an astringent used to suppress diarrhea and dysentery.¹⁰

It also reported that the heart wood is astringent, aphrodisiac, haemostatic and is useful in dysentery; haemorrhages and vitiated conditions of vata and gout. Roots are used as emetic and purgative.¹⁴

Phytochemistry:

Earlier phytochemical investigation showed that the leaves contain octacosanol, dulcitol, glucosides of betasitosterol, flavones and stigmasterol^15,16,17 and alcoholic extract of leaves contains an alkaloid. The bark contains beside stigmasterol glycosides, butein, chalcone, dihydromyricetin, 2, 4-dihydrobenzoic acid, robinetin and saponins which on hydrolysis and methylation afforded methyl echinocystate and methyloleanolate. The wood contains robenetin, chalcone, butein and the flavones. The seeds contain non protein amino acid, methylene glutamine and traces of ethledine glutamic acid.¹⁷

It is reported to have a rich amount of flavanoids mainly gallic acid, terpenoids, tannis, sterols (beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol-3β –D-glucoside), triterpinoids (nonacosane and hentriacontane) and saponins (sapogenins).¹⁸Phytochemical studies shows the presence of the glycosides, saponins and steroids in seed and pod. A new five membered lactone ring compound, pavonin, was isolated from the methanol soluble part of A. Pavonina.¹⁹

Researchers have isolated several methoxy flavonol glycosides, such as kaempferol-3-O-𝛼-dirhamnopyranosyl (1’’’→2’’,1’’’’→6’’)-𝛽-glucopyranoside, quercetin3-O𝛼-dirhamnopyranosyl-(1’’’→2’’, 1’’’’→6’’)-𝛽-glucopyranoside-4’-methoxy, isovitexin, quercetin-3-O-rhamnopyranosyl (1’’’→2’’)-𝛽-glucopyranoside, quercetin-3-O-𝛽glucopranoside-4’-O-rhamnopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O𝛼-rhamnopyranosyl (1’’’ →2’’)-𝛽-glucopyranoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnopyranosyl (1’’’ →4’’)-𝛽-glucopyranoside, quercetin-3-O-𝛽-glucopyranoside, kaempferol, and quercetin from the extract of the leaves of A. Pavonina.²⁰

The seed contains an anti-inflammatory active principle, O-acetylethanolamine. The leaves contain octacosanol, dulcitol, glucosides of betasitosterol, and stigmasterol. The bark contains stigmasterol glucoside. Seeds contain HCN-glucoside, lignoceric acid, dulcitol, stigmasterol, stigmasterol glucoside and polysaccharide. Seeds are a promising source for galactomannans and polysaccharide.^16,21

Previous phytochemical studies on this plant revealed the presence of robinetin, chalcone, tanins, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, steroids, butin and flavonal ampelopsin, stigmasterol glucosides, oleanolic acid, echinocystic acid, sapogenins and many other bioactive phytoconstituents.^{22, 23, 24}

Nine compounds were isolated from the 95% ethanol extract of the stems and leaves of A. pavanina and their structures were elucidated as aridanin (1), 3-[(2-Acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucopyranosyl)oxy]-16alpha-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid (2), (+)-pinitol (3), sucrose (4), (-)-butin (5), apigenin (6), isoliquiritigenin 4-methyl ether (7), oleanolic acid (8), daucosterol (9).²⁵

The alcoholic extract of the roots after separation of hexane and ether soluble fractions yielded a semi-solid which gave copious frothing when shaken with water. The crude product after purification yielded a saponin which on acidic hydrolysis yielded a mixture of genin acids. The sugar moiety of the saponin was found to be glucose only.²⁶

The bark of Adenanthera pavonina Linn. have been found to contain the reducing sugar (1.01%) as glucose. The percentages of various amino acids present in the crude protein (5.25%) were found to be aspartic acid (0.10%), threonine (0.24%), serine (0.08%), glutamic acid (0.52%), glycine (0.09%), alanine (0.07%), valine (0.10%), methionine (0.13%), isoleucine (0.06%), tyrosine (0.27%), histidine (0.11%), lysine (0.88%) and arginine (0.25%). The fatty acid composition were found to be lauric (5.23%), palmitic (38.16%), oleic acid (6.29%) and stearic acid (8.93%).²⁷

Pharmacology:

Antibacterial Activity:

The antibacterial activity of three medicinal Thai plants studied against Campylobacter jejuni and other food borne pathogens. Methods and solvents employed to extract active constituents were optimised using the disc diffusion assay. Minimum inhibitory concentrations and minimum bactericidal concentrations were determined by broth microdilution. A. pavonina contained flavonoids, terpines and tannins, and was the most active extract against Campylobacter jejuni, inhibiting growth at 62.5 -125 microgram/ml.²⁸

The antibacterial and antifungal activity of three solvent extracts of Adenanthera pavonina and Mussaenda philippica on microbes isolated from dairy cattle rearing unit was studied. The results revealed that these extracts have antibacterial activity against Salmonella enteritidis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and hence these crude extracts can be used as anti-infection agents in dairy cattle rearing unit to avoid infections especially to calves which are prone to infections at birth.⁷

Antifungal Activity:

The antifungal activity of peptides extracted from Adenanthera pavonina seeds was assessed. Peptides were extracted and fractionated by chromatography. Activity tested against Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida albicans.²⁹

Anthelmintic Activity:

Anthelmintic screening of crude bark extract of Adenanthera pavonina studied. Phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts revealed presence of flavonoids as one of the chemical constituent shows significant anthelmintic activity at 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml when compared with standard drug piperazine citrate.³⁰

Antihypertensive activity:

Evaluated blood pressure lowering effect of Adenanthera pavonina seed extract on normotensive rats was investigated.12 adult male wistar rats divided into 3 groups of 4 animals each and were treated orally with normal saline (control group), propranolol (positive control, and was given at 1mg/kg) and 200mg/kg of seed extract over a 4-week period. The study showed that seed extract have the potential to cause a blood pressure lowering effect.³¹

Anti-inflammatory activity:

A methanol extract of the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina was evaluated for anti-inflammatory studies in animal models. The extract (50-200 mg/kg) produced statistically significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of the carrageenan-induced paw oedema in the rat, as well as the acetic-acid-induced vascular permeability in mice. At doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg, pleurisy induced with carrageenan was also inhibited.³²

An ethanol extracts from the leaves of Adenanthera pavonina were assessed for antiinflammatory activity at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg for anti-inflammatory effects using both acute and chronic inflammatory models. It was found that the doses possessed inhibitory effects on the acute phase of inflammation as seen in carrageenan-induced hind paw edema as well as in a subacute study of cotton pellet induced granuloma formation.³³

The extracts of the barks of Adenanthera pavonina were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity using the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema model at dose levels of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, where dichlofenac sodium was used as a positive reference standard. The results showed that the PE fraction exhibited 25.6% and 27.8% inhibition of the paw oedema at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, respectively at the first hour of the study.⁹

Anti-inflammatory activity of Adenanthera pavonina Linn. leaves were evaluated using formalin induced rat paw oedema model for acute inflammation and cotton pellet granuloma model for chronic inflammation. The methanolic extract and its aqueous fraction were screened for its anti-inflammatory activity at the dose levels of 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg. Compared with control both showed significant activity against acute and chronic inflammation. Aqueous fraction of methanolic extract significantly inhibit the paw oedema in acute model and granuloma formation in chronic model with respect to the methanolic extract. ¹⁴

Antidiabetic activity:

The glycaemic regulatory properties of hot water extract of Adenanthera pavonina mature leaves using rats. Different doses and tolbutamide were orally administrated to normoglycaemic rats. Fasting serum glucose levels were determined at hourly intervals for 4 h using standard procedures. The results showed extract of leaves possesses significant (P < 0.05) hypoglycaemic effects in both fasted and fed rats.¹⁰

The renal protective effect of A. pavonina seed aqueous extract was studied in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Extract significantly reduced proteinuria, albuminuria and lipid levels deposition in diabetic rats hence could have beneficial effect in reducing the progression of diabetic nephropathy.¹³

The effect of aqueous solution of leaves of A. pavonina on the blood glucose level of normal rats was evaluated. Oral glucose tolerance test was done to determine the glucose tolerance activity. When considering the Oral glucose tolerance test results; there was a significant decrease in blood glucose levels in the test group treated with aqueous solution of leaves of A. pavonina at time 30 minutes and 120 minutes after loading 2g/kg of glucose. There was a significantly high glucose tolerance activity in the test group compared to the control group. The study showed that aqueous solution of leaves of A. pavonina has the capability of regulating blood glucose level.³⁴

The antidiabetic effect of galactomannans extracted from Adenanthera pavonina’s L. seeds in streptozotocin induced diabetic micewas evaluated. The isolated and extracted galactomannan from Adenanthera pavonina was confirmed by various chemical characterization methods. galactomannans exhibited a 1.46:1 mannose: galactose ratio, and high molar weight. galactomannans didn’t interfere on food intakes or body weight, although it increased water intake.³⁵

Antidiarrheal Activity:

To antidiarrheal potential of Adenanthera pavonina seed aqueous extract investigated in experimental animals against castor oil and magnesium sulphate-induced diarrhoea in rats. The effect of extract on gastrointestinal transit using charcoal and castor oil induced enter pooling was assessed using Loperamide 3mg/kg was used as reference standard. Oral administration at doses 50,100 and 200 mg/kg exhibited dose-dependent significant antidiarrheal potential against castor oil and magnesium sulphate-induced diarrhoea in rats. It also produced significant reduction in propulsive movement in castor oil-induced gastrointestinal transit using charcoal meal in rats when compared with reference standard Loperamide.³⁶

Anti-diarrheal activity and Acute toxicity:

In castor oil induced diarrhea model on rat, the methanol extract of A. pavonina bark has significantly reduced the cumulative wet fecal mass in the dose dependant protection. At the doses of 500 mg/kg body weight found 17.91% reduction and at 1000 mg/kg body weight found 34.32% reduction in comparison to the control. The elements N, P, K, S, Ca and Mg were found to be the highest amount of the powdered bark sample.³⁷

Antinociceptive Activity:

The antinociceptive activity of ethanol extract of leaves of A. pavonina was investigated using various nociceptive models induced thermally or chemically in mice including hot plate and tail immersion test, acetic acid induced writhing, and glutamate and formalin-induced licking tests at the doses of 50, 100, and 200mg/kg body weight. The result demonstrated that extract produced a significant and dose-dependent increment in the hot plate latency and tail withdrawal time. It reduced the number of abdominal constrictions and paw lickings induced by acetic acid and glutamate respectively. Plant inhibited the nociceptive responses in both phases of formalin test.³⁸

Antihyperlipidemic Activity:

The effect of Adenanthera pavonina seed extract on the blood cholesterol level of atherogenic diet rats was evaluated. Aqueous extract of the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina is relatively more antihypercholesterolemic than antitriglyceridemic. The methanol extract of the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina on rats showed that the extract caused significant decrease in the levels of serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels.³⁹

Anticancer Activity:

A decoction composed of Adenanthera pavonina L. and Thespesia populnea L. Evaluated to study cytotoxicity and anti-proliferative activity against the HEp-2 cells using Lactate Dehydrogenase release, (3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide), and Sulforhodamine B. Induction of apoptosis was visualized by fluorescence microscopy stained with ethidium bromide/acridine orange dye mix. In addition, brine shrimp lethality assay showed an EC50 value at a higher concentration (1.96 mg/mL).⁴⁰

Antidiabetic, Hypolipidemic activity:

Alloxan monohydrate induced hyperglycaemic model was used to detect antidiabetic activity of aqueous and alcoholic extract of Adenanthera pavonina (500mg/kg) seeds respectively. Analysis of biochemical parameters shows significant beneficial effects on lipid profile in diabetes rats i.e. reduction in total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, Low Density Lipoprotein and increasing High Density Lipoprotein significantly.⁴¹

Antimalarial and Antioxidant activity:

The antimalarial activity of the methanol seed extract of Adenanthera pavonina Linn investigated in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. In addition in vitro antioxidant activity of assessed using the 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl based assay. the crude extract, at a dose of 800 mg/kg exerted an antimalarial activity (92.11%) higher than that of chloroquine (88.73%). Methanol seed extract of Adenanthera pavonina demonstrated a significant antimalarial activity but did not exert any antioxidant effect over the parasitized treated mice.⁴²

Hepatoprotective activity:

The leaves of Adenanthera pavonina evaluate for the hepatoprotective action against isoniazid and rifampicin-induced liver damage. Methanolic extract of A. pavonina and silymarin, were found to restore the levels of anti-oxidant enzymes which could be due to the ability of the constituents in the administered compounds to scavenge reactive oxygen species.⁴³

Anti-Emetic Activity:

Crude methanol extracts of the leaves of Adenanthera pavonina L., Peltoforum roxburghii L, Prosopis cineraria L., and Prosopis juliflora DC., were evaluated for anti-emetic activity. Emesis was induced by the oral administration of copper sulphate 50mg/kg body weight to male chicks of four days age. The anti-emetic activity was determined by calculating the mean decrease in number of retching in contrast with those of control. All extracts (150 mg / kg body weight orally) showed anti-emetic activity when compared with standard drug Chlorpromazine at the same dose. Among all the extracts, Prosopis juliflora showed the highest (73.64%) and Adenanthera pavonina showed the lowest (50.17%) anti-emetic activity.⁴⁴

Antioxidant activity:

The scavenging activity of methanolic extract of Adenanthera pavonina Linn leaves was evaluated to find the ability to counteract oxidative damages. Scavenging activity was evaluated by DPPH free radical and nitric oxide anion scavenging assays with ascorbic acid as standard. Total reducing power was found to be increasing with increasing doses of extract.⁴⁵

Antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts of leaf and bark using DPPH scavenging activity comparison shows that leaf extract the has little higher antioxidant activity than the bark extract. The leaf part of the plant is more active in respect of its antioxidant activity than bark, though leaf part is lacking flavonoids.⁴⁶

Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity:

The anti-proliferative effect of acetone and methanol bark extracts of Adenanthera pavonina on three cancer cell lines using sulforhodamine-B assay and their antioxidant activities using 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydazyl radical and its reducing ability were investigated. The antioxidant and the reducing power assay showed a significant dose dependant activity. The antioxidant activity of these extracts might be one of the reasons for the anticancer potential.⁴⁷

Antiviral Activity:

The activity of sulfated polysaccharide from the Adenanthera pavonina seeds against poliovirus type 1 in cell cultures evaluated using dimethylthiazolyl-diphenyltetrazolium bromide method and plaque reduction assay. The sulfated polysaccharide elicited antiviral effect in steps after virus entry into the cells with a low cytotoxicity.⁴⁸

CONCLUSION:

Medicinal plants are sources of drugs and of therapeutic importance due to presence of secondary metabolites. There is increasing interest in the use of medicinal plants as therapeutic agents. From the above review it can be conclude that Adenanthera pavonina L is potential source of medicine because of its Antioxidant Activity, Antibacterial Activity, Anti-inflammatory, Hypolipidaemic, and Hepatoprotective activity. It can also be useful for treatment of various human ailments such as treatment of boils, inflammation, blood disorders, arthritis, rheumatism, cholera, paralysis, epilepsy, convulsion, spasm, and indigestion.

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Received on 23.07.2019 Modified on 09.08.2019

Res. J. Pharmacology & Pharmacodynamics.2019; 11(4):140-146.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5836.2019.00025.9